Thursday, October 2, 2014

A00220 - Abdullah ibn Muhammad, The Khalifa of Sudan

Abdullah Ibn-Mohammed or Abdullah al-Taashi or Abdullah al-Taaisha, also known as "The Khalifa" (Arabicc. عبدالله بن سيد محمد خليفة‎; 1846 – November 25, 1899) was a Sudanese Ansar General and ruler who was one of the principal followers of Muhammad Ahmad. Ahmad claimed to be the Mahdi, building up a large following. After his death Abdallahi ibn Muhammad took over the movement, adpoting the title of Khalifat al-Mahdi (usually rendered as "Khalifa"). His attempt to create an Islamist military dictatorship led to widespread discontent, and his eventual defeat and death at the hands of the British.

Early years[edit]

Abdullah was born into the Ta'aisha Baqqara tribe in Darfur around 1846 and was trained and educated as a preacher and holy man.[1] He became a follower ofMohammed Ahmed "the Mahdi" around 1880[1] and was named Khalifa by the Mahdi in 1881, becoming one of his chief lieutenants.[2] The other Kalifas were Ali wad Hilu and Muhammad Sharif.[3] He was given command of a large part of the Mahdist army, and during the next four years led them in a series of victories over the Anglo-Egyptians.[2] He fought at the Battle of El Obeid, where William Hicks's Anglo-Egyptian army was destroyed (November 5, 1883), and was one of the principal commanders at the siege of Khartoum, (February 1884 - January 26, 1885).[4]

Mahdist leader[edit]

After the unexpected death of the Mahdi in June 1885, Abdullah succeeded as leader of the Mahdists, declaring himself "Khalifat al-Mahdi", or successor of the Mahdi.[1][2] He faced internal disputes over his leadership with the Ashraf and he had to suppress several revolts in 1885-1886, 1888-1889, and 1891 before emerging as sole leader.[4] At first the Mahdiyah was run on military lines as a jihad state, with the courts enforcing Sharia law and the precepts of the Mahdi, which had equal force. Later the Khalifa established a more traditional administration.[5]
He felt the best course of action to keep the internal problems at a minimum was to expand into Ethiopia and Egypt. The Khalifa invaded Ethiopia with 60,000 Ansar troops and sacked Gondar in 1887. He later refused to make peace.[5] He successfully repulsed the Ethiopians at the Battle of Metemma on March 9, 1889, where the Ethiopian emperor Yohannes IV was killed.[2] He created workshops to maintain steam boats on the Nile and to manufacture ammunition.[5] He underestimated the strength of the Anglo-Egyptian forces and suffered a crushing defeat in Egypt.[1]
The Egyptians failed to counter up the Nile; however in the 1890s his state became strained economically, and suffered from crop failures instead.[1] The Ashraf, in November 1891, decided to press again, but were put down one final time and they were prevented from causing any further issues.[1] During the next four years, he strengthened the military and financial situation of the Sudan; however this was not enough as, the Sudan became threatened by Italian, French and British imperial forces which surrounded it. In 1896, an Anglo-Egyptian army under General Herbert Kitchener began the reconquest of the Sudan.[2][1]

Defeat and death[edit]

Following the loss of Dongola in September 1896, then Berber and Abu Hamed to Kitchener's army in 1897, the Khalifa Abdullah sent an army that was defeated at theBattle of Atbara River on April 8, 1898, afterwards falling back to his new capital of Omdurman.
At the Battle of Omdurman on September 2, 1898 his army of 52,000 men was destroyed. The Khalifa then fled south and went into hiding with a few followers but was finally caught and killed by Sir Reginald Wingate's Egyptian column at Umm Diwaikarat in Kordofan on November 24, 1899.[6][1]
Devout, intelligent, and an able general and administrator, the Khalifa was unable to overcome tribal dissension to unify Sudan, and was forced to employ Egyptians to provide the trained administrators and technicians he needed to maintain his self-proclaimed Islamist military dictatorship.[4]

*****
ʿAbd Allāh, in full ʿabd Allāh Ibn Muḥammad At-taʿīʾishī, also called ʿabdullahi   (born 1846Sudan—died Nov. 24, 1899Kordofan), political and religious leader who succeeded Muḥammad Aḥmad (al-Mahdī) as head of a religious movement and state within the Sudan.
ʿAbd Allāh followed his family’s vocation for religion. In about 1880 he became a disciple of Muḥammad Aḥmad, who announced that he had a divine mission, became known as al-Mahdī, and appointed ʿAbd Allāh a caliph (khalīfah). When al-Mahdī died in 1885, ʿAbd Allāh became leader of the Mahdist movement. His first concern was to establish his authority on a firm basis. Al-Mahdī had clearly designated him as successor, but the Ashraf, a portion of al-Mahdī’s supporters, tried to reverse this decision. By promptly securing control of the vital administrative positions in the movement and obtaining the support of the most religiously sincere group of al-Mahdī’s followers, ʿAbd Allāh neutralized this opposition. ʿAbd Allāh could not claim the same religious inspiration as had al-Mahdī, but, by announcing that he received divine instruction through al-Mahdī, he tried to assume as much of the aura as was possible.

ʿAbd Allāh believed he could best control the disparate elements that supported him by maintaining the expansionist momentum begun by al-Mahdī. He launched attacks against the Ethiopians and began an invasion of Egypt. But ʿAbd Allāh had greatly overestimated the support his forces would receive from the Egyptian peasantry and underestimated the potency of the Anglo-Egyptian military forces, and in 1889 his troops suffered a crushing defeat in Egypt.
A feared Anglo-Egyptian advance up the Nile did not materialize. Instead ʿAbd Allāh suffered famine and military defeats in the eastern Sudan. The most serious challenge to his authority came from a revolt of the Ashraf in November 1891, but he kept this from reaching extensive proportions and reduced his opponents to political impotence.
During the next four years, ʿAbd Allāh ruled securely and was able to consolidate his authority. The famine and the expense of large-scale military campaigns came to an end. ʿAbd Allāh modified his administrative policies, making them more acceptable to the people. Taxation became less burdensome. ʿAbd Allāh created a new military corps, the mulazimiyah, of whose loyalty he felt confident.
But in 1896 Anglo-Egyptian forces began their reconquest of the Sudan. Although ʿAbd Allāh resisted for almost two years, he could not prevail against British machine guns. In September 1898 he was forced to flee his capital, Omdurman, but he remained at large with a considerablearmy. Many Egyptians and Sudanese resented the Condominium Agreement of January 1899, by which the Sudan became almost a British protectorate, and ʿAbd Allāh hoped to rally support. But on Nov. 24, 1899, a British force engaged the Mahdist remnants, and ʿAbd Allāh died in the fighting.

*****
Abdullah ibn Muhammad or Abdullah Ibn-Mohammed or Abdullah al-Taashi or Abdullah al-Taaisha or Abdallahi ibn Muhammad or 'Abd Allah ibn Muhammad At-ta'i'shi, also known as "The Khalifa" (Arabic:  عبدالله بن سيد محمد خليفة)‎ (b. 1846, Sudan – d. November [24?] 25, 1899, Kordofan) was a Sudanese Ansar General and ruler who was one of the principal followers of Muhammad Ahmad. Ahmad claimed to be the Mahdi, building up a large following. After his death Abdallahi ibn Muhammad took over the movement, adopting the title of Khalifat al-Mahdi (usually rendered as "Khalifa"). His attempt to create an Islamist military dictatorship led to widespread discontent, and his eventual defeat and death at the hands of the British.
Abdullah followed his family’s vocation for religion. In about 1880 he became a disciple of Muḥammad Aḥmad, who announced that he had a divine mission, became known as al-Mahdī, and appointed Abdullah a caliph (khalīfah). When al-Mahdī died in 1885, Abdullah became leader of the Mahdist movement. His first concern was to establish his authority on a firm basis. Al-Mahdī had clearly designated him as successor, but the Ashraf, a portion of al-Mahdī’s supporters, tried to reverse this decision. By promptly securing control of the vital administrative positions in the movement and obtaining the support of the most religiously sincere group of al-Mahdī’s followers, Abdullah neutralized this opposition. Abdullah could not claim the same religious inspiration as had al-Mahdī, but, by announcing that he received divine instruction through al-Mahdī, he tried to assume as much of the aura as was possible.
Abdullah believed he could best control the disparate elements that supported him by maintaining the expansionist momentum begun by al-Mahdī. He launched attacks against the Ethiopians and began an invasion of Egypt.  But Abdullah had greatly overestimated the support his forces would receive from the Egyptian peasantry and underestimated the potency of the Anglo-Egyptian military forces, and in 1889 his troops suffered a crushing defeat in Egypt.
A feared Anglo-Egyptian advance up the Nile did not materialize. Instead Abdullah suffered famine and military defeats in the eastern Sudan. The most serious challenge to his authority came from a revolt of the Ashraf in November 1891, but he kept this from reaching extensive proportions and reduced his opponents to political impotence.
During the next four years, Abdullah ruled securely and was able to consolidate his authority. The famine and the expense of large-scale military campaigns came to an end. Abdullah modified his administrative policies, making them more acceptable to the people. Taxation became less burdensome. Abdullah created a new military corps, the mulazimiyah, of whose loyalty he felt confident.
However, in 1896 Anglo-Egyptian forces began their reconquest of the Sudan. Although Abdullah resisted for almost two years, he could not prevail against British machine guns. In September 1898 he was forced to flee his capital, Omdurman, but he remained at large with a considerable army. Many Egyptians and Sudanese resented the Condominium Agreement of January 1899, by which the Sudan became almost a British protectorate, and Abdullah hoped to rally support.  On November 24, 1899, a British force engaged the Mahdist remnants, and Abdullah died in the fighting.

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